Timeline of Egyptian Mummies. 

Brief Timeline of Ancient Egypt

Predynastic (ca. 4300-3000 B.C.E.)

Prior to Egyptian unification in ca.3100 BCE, the mummies found at Merimda Beni

Salama show that the dead were buried in a shallow grave in the desert sand, allowing for

natural and spontaneous mummification to take place. (McArthur 2011)

Early Dynastic (ca. 3000 - 2675 B.C.E.)

Mummies from the Second Dynasty, found at Saqqara as well as Abydos and

Hierakonpolis, show that the first bodies exposed to the experimentation process were

wrapped in various resin-infused layers of linen. (McArthur 2011)

Old Kingdom (ca. 2675 - 2130 B.C.E)

In the Old Kingdom Egyptians started experimenting with the use of natron together with salt to increase the dehydration of soft body parts Although this method became the standard for the next three millennia, Egyptians realized that dehydration of a body resulted in dark, wrinkled as well as shrunken skin. To compensate for this unattractive appearance and to rectify the disappearance of fat and muscle, the reconstructed face of Prince Renefer (ca.2250) shows that embalmers filled the voids in mummies' bodies with linen, soil as well as sawdust during this era. Molding of the mummified body also started to emerge during this Period.

First Intermediate Period (ca. 2130 - 1980 B.C.E.)

the First Intermediary Period saw the launch of an idealized cartonnage mask which continued to be used until the Roman Period. The mummy's head was now covered with a blue-and-gold, helmet-like mask which became the symbol of 'classic' mummification

The Egyptians thought this the mask assisted the deceased to see into the

netherworld, to fight off any hostile powers and ultimately to indicate that the deceased

has achieved divine status although the practice of abdominal evisceration continued to be used in this Period, signs of anal and vaginal injection of a liquid to dissolve the innards as well as dilation of those body parts emerged in the First

Intermediate Period . (McArthur 2011)

Middle Kingdom (ca. 1980 - 1630 B.C.E.)

The Middle Kingdom Egyptians actively started placing removed viscera in

canopic jars; however, abdominal evisceration only became a standardized practice during

the New Kingdom. Natron was still used to treat the removed viscera whilst resin, as seen in the mummy of Senbtisi, was poured into the canopic jars. The mummy of Wah was found to have had his liver, intestines, and stomach removed, but the heart and lungs remained intact. During this Period, canopic jars also underwent a metamorphosis as the objects, usually fitted with plain covers, acquired more creative coverings in the form of uniformly-shaped human heads. This practice continued until the New Kingdom (McArthur 2011)

NEW KINGDOM (ca. 1539 - 1075 B.C.E.)

Under the reign of Tutankhamen, the technique of human mummification

reached its pinnacle as embalming became standard practice for the dead and became

known as the 'classic' style of mummification. Standardized mummification practices continued to be implemented, such as the removal of the brain via the nose, evisceration through an incision on the left side of the body, and placing the innards in canopic jars. The practice of tying the mummy's skin around its fingernails also reached its epoch in the New Kingdom. Additionally, each extremity was individually wrapped before the body was bandaged in its entirety. (McArthur 2011)

THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (ca. 1075 - 656 B.C.E

Even though Egypt was immersed in civil war, the practice of mummification reached its

peak in the Third Intermediary Period. During this period, Egyptians placed immense emphasis on the external wrappings of mummies and wanted to achieve an ideal image of the deceased; This was achieved by stuffing the body with sawdust, linen, butter, and mud through the neck, back, face as well as inside of the mouth. (McArthur 2011)

MACEDONIAN PERIOD (ca. 332 - 305 B.C.E.)

Egypt first became part of the Persian Kingdom with the invasion of Alexander the Great

in ca.332 BCE and became an independent state under Ptolemy I from Macedonia. In the Greek Period, the most important positions were held by foreigners, which led to the dilution of Egyptian cultural practices and an increase in Hellenistic traditions, especially in the new Egyptian capital Alexandria. The social characteristics of this Period were dynastic schism, maladministration, economic crisis, and Egyptian resentments, yet also a success when looking at the accomplishments of the Graeco-Macedonian elite. During the Ptolemaic Period, various categories of mummification arose, allowing even the poorest Egyptians to be mummified. Contrary to the Late Period, mummification reached a standard untouched by previous generations during this era. Diamond and square-shaped patterns, representing the four sons of Horus, the djed-pillar and/or Anubis, were

created by thin layers of ripped cloth. This was harmonized by turquoise beads and evolved into a kaleidoscope of red, black, and white patterns whilst golden pendants were placed in the middle of the various patterns. The mummies found by W.M.F. Petrie at Hawara show that the limbs of mummies were wrapped separately and tightly to imitate the shape of the body, reflecting the practice common in the Old Kingdom. The body's volume was also increased by the mediocre placement of packets of linen to fill any empty pockets within the mummy. The faces of mummies found at Antinoe and el-Kharga Oasis were decorated with a variety of gold-plated or thick stucco masks portraying the ideal and divine image of the deceased. Also, the majority of

distinguished mummies' eyelids, lips and nails were gilded whilst often small golden

leaves decorated the skin of the mummy. Furthermore, the faces of the mummies were painted with natural colors whilst the eyes were decorated with inlaid glass.

Execerebration continued to be used in the Hellenistic Period however various changes in

the mummification process took place during this era . Firstly, the inclusion of empty canopic jars ceased to exist during the Ptolemaic Period. This was replaced by small, tall as well as painted canopic chests. Secondly, the overall use of amulets decreased with some mummies failing to show any amulets except for the presence of the heart scarab. Also, in the middle of the Ptolemaic Period helmet-masks reappeared with the addition of a number of painted cartonnage elements fixed to the shroud . Lastly, the wrappings of the mummy were now painted with a full-scale representation of the deceased whilst often wearing a Hellenistic dress.

At this time of Greek rule in Egypt most high-status positions in society came

to be held by non-Egyptians. Therefore, a consistent erosion of Egyptians' traditions

occurred. An increasing Hellenistic input is seen in various manifestations of Egyptian art, including that of death. the Greeks adopted numerous Egyptian functional items they did not understand the fundamental symbolic importance thereof.

ROMAN and BYZANTINE EMPIRE (ca. 30 B.C.E. - 642 C.E.)

The weakening of Egyptian cultural practices became more evident in the Roman Period

under the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus. During this Period the difference between indigenous tradition and the Hellenistic culture of the foreigners intensified, mostly due to the appearance of Christianity. This religion rapidly spread throughout Egypt and actively undermined Egypt's polytheism. As a result, the established Egyptian order was challenged, the focus on the king as well as the emperor during the Roman Period started to diminish and religious as well as burial practices were radically affected. Although mummification was the most widespread during the Roman Period, its techniques regarding treating the physical body reached an all-time low. This practice developed into a profitable business venture due to the large number of foreigners who wanted to adopt the Egyptian funerary practices. As a result, increased demand to signify social status rather than spiritual dedication resulted in further decline in the quality of mummification. The focus on the external appearance of the mummy however became particularly sophisticated in the Roman Period and resulted in a rich and elaborate geometrical patterning of the outer wrappings of mummies. In this Period individuals showed an increased need for the sophisticated Roman

appearance of mummies and resulted in a fundamental change in the physical appearance

of mummies. As a result, the traditional funerary mask was replaced with a realistically

painted wooden panel, also known as the 'Faiyum portraits', to protect the mummy's

features. At the end of the Roman Period full body cartonnages emerged with a portrait of the deceased in lieu of a mask. (McArthur 2011)

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The idea of two Egypts, one Greek and the other Pharaonic Egyptian co-existing separately, is questioned by Thomas Peter Landvatter in his dissertation, IDENTITY, BURIAL PRACTICE, AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN PTOLEMAIC EGYPT. (Landvatter 2013)

This division reinforces the perception of Egypt as consisting of "two societies," with distinct Egyptian and Greek material cultures mirroring

Egyptian and Greek ethnicities. This can be seen most clearly in the study of burial practices, which have traditionally been seen as indicators of ethnic affiliation, since the stark

contrast between Greek modes of burial and Egyptian mummification has made such

equivalencies easy. The issue is that these systems need not correspond to groups that

are ethnically Greek or Egyptian and that these systems need not have been mutually unintelligible. The conscious adoption of the symbols and iconography of Egyptian kingship by the Ptolemaic dynasty suggests some cross-cultural comprehension from the beginning of the Period.